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pull-away can be caused by insufficient texturing of the epoxy dielectric during the desmear process, overconditioning, overcatalyzation, or insufficient acceleration. The electroless copper bath may become overactive and plate a stressed deposit. Ensuring that the process is functioning as specified with regard to dwell times, chemical concentrations, and bath temperature are the corrective actions. 3. Bath decomposition. This is rapid plating out of the copper. Common causes are bath imbalance, overloading, overheating, lack of use, tank wall initiation, and contamination. 4. Electroless copper to-copper-clad bond failure. Copper-to-copper adhesion failures can occur on the surface or on the innerlayers. Surface copper adhesion failures arise from unclean copper. Dry-film and/or developing residues, overconditioning, insufficient rinsing, insufficient microetch, and overcatalyization are common causes. Innerlayer copper-to-copper adhesion failures, commonly referred as ICD, may be due to all the items mentioned. Further causes may be related to the electroless copper bath itself. A stressed deposit due to high bath activity or decomposition has poor integrity and may fail under reliability testing. Specific additives in supplier formulations may contribute to ICDs as well. 5. Staining. Copper oxidation is due to moisture or contamination on the copper surface. Corrective action involves dipping boards in antitarnish or hard rinsing in DI water.

TABLE 28.4 Electroless Copper Function of constituents Constituent Copper salt Reducing agent Complexer pH controller Additives CuSO4 5 H2O HCHO EDTA, tartrates, Rochelle salts NaOH NaCN, metals, S, N, CN organics Function Supplies copper Cu+2 + 2e Cu0 Holds Cu+2 in solution at high pH; controls rate Controls pH (rate) 11.5 12.5 optimum for HCHO reduction Stabilize, brighten, speed rate, strengthen

Process Outline This outline presents the typical steps in an electroless copper process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Rack Clean and condition Water rinse Surface copper etch (microtech) Water rinse Sulfuric acid (optional) Water rinse Preactivator Activator (catalyst) Water rinse Postactivator (accelerator) Water rinse Electroless copper Rinse Sulfuric acid or antitarnish Rinse Scrub (optional) Rinse Copper flash plate (optional) Dry Release to image transfer

Significant portions of this chapter are drawn from Edward F. Duffek, Ph.D., Preparing Boards for Plating, Printed Circuits Handbook, 5th ed, Clyde F. Coombs (ed.), 2001, Chap. 28.

1. Carano, M., Proceedings of 16th AESF/EPA Pollution Prevention & Control Conference, 1995, p. 179. 2. Nargi-Toth, K., Printed Circuit Fabrication, Vol. 15, No. 34, September 1992. 3. Deckert, C. A., Couble, E. C., and Bonetti, W. F., Improved Post-Desmear Process for Multilayer Boards, IPC Technical Review, January 1985, pp. 12 19. 4. Batchelder, G., Letize, R., and Durso, Frank, Advances in Multilayer Hole Processing, MacDermid Company. 5. Stone, F. E., Electroless Plating Fundamentals and Applications, G. Mallory and J.B. Hajdu (eds.), American Electroplaters and Surface Finishers Society, Inc., 1990, Chap. 13. 6. Deckert, C. A., Electroless Copper Plating, ASM Handbook, Vol. 5, 1994, pp. 311 322. 7. Murray, J., Plating, Part 1: Electroless Copper, Circuits Manufacturing, Vol. 25, No. 2, February 1985, pp. 116 124.

8. Polakovic, F., Contaminants and Their Effect on the Electroless Copper Process, IPC Technical Review, October 1984, pp. 12 16. 9. Blurton, K. F., High Quality Copper Deposited from Electroless Copper Baths, Plating and Surface Finishing, Vol. 73, No. 1, 1986, pp. 52 55. 10. Lea, C., The Importance of High Quality Electroless Copper Deposition in the Production of Plated-Through Hole PCBs, Circuit World, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1986, pp. 16 21.

The reality in printed circuit evolution is that the parts are continuing to increase in degree of difficulty and complexity. A new genre of high-density interconnect (HDI) boards is making the transition from leading edge to mainstream. These boards are characterized by a combination of a series of complex features that include buried and blind vias, high-aspect ratio plating, small-hole plating (as low as 6 mil diameter holes), and fine lines and spaces side by side with ground plane areas of different sizes. The industry, however, still has a need to produce simpler products, such as single-sided and double-sided boards; these are still in demand. Multilayer boards with lower layer counts (four to eight) fall in this category also. This chapter focuses on all aspects of electroplating. Emphasis will be on acid copper plating as the main process for providing interconnection. Tin, tin-lead, nickel, and gold electroplating will also be covered as important plated materials. In addition, the latest innovations in technology for meeting the challenges of product complexity, such as pulse plating and horizontal conveyorized plating, are discussed in detail.

Electroplating is the production of adherent deposition of conductive surfaces by the passage of electric current through a conductive metal-bearing solution. The rate of plating depends on current and time and is expressed by Faraday s law (Eq. 29.1): W = (ItA)/(nF) where W = metal, g I = current, A t = time, s A = atomic weight of the metal n = number of electrons involved in metal ion reduction F = Faraday s constant (96,485 C/mol) (29.1)

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Plating occurs at the cathode (the negative electrode). Accordingly, deposition thickness is determined by time and by the current that is impressed on the surface being plated; for example, by using the preceding formula, one can readily calculate the weight of the deposited metal. The weight can then be converted to a specific thickness over a known area. The rate of deposition of the most common metals is shown in Table 29.1.