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Failure Modes ENIG failure modes at fabrication are mainly due to the activity of the chemical process steps. Underactive catalysis yields skip plating in the subsequent nickel bath. Nickel skips allow copper to migrate through gold and prevent solder wetting. Overactive catalysis can lead to extra metal between circuit features, known as extraneous plating. This can cause short circuits. Overactive nickel baths deposit low phosphorous content, leading to the interconnection failure mode known as black-pad (described in Sec. 12.2). Overactive gold chemistry attacks nickel along nodule boundaries and produces black-pad. Such gold conditions may be detected with frequent x-ray fluorescence (XRF) thickness measurement. Underactive nickel and gold baths pose skip-plate problems. Peeling of gold films can result from too much rinse time after nickel or from poor rinse quality. Tape testing of ENIG is mandatory. Very rough nickel deposits are possible when the electroless nickel bath is not closely maintained. Nickel baths can destabilize, plate onto the tank walls, and produce inferior coatings. Lastly, soldered ENIG surfaces result in a nickel-tin solderjoint. This structure has been demonstrated to be less tolerant of physical shock than the copper-tin solderjoint. The brittle intermetallic is unavoidable with ENIG, so mobile devices usually do not employ ENIG solderjoints.

ORGANIC SOLDERABILITY PRESERVATIVE (OSP)

As the name connotes, OSPs are very thin organic coatings used to preserve the solderability of PCB surface copper. Differing from alternative surface finishes that attempt to serve other PCB functions, OSPs are generally limited to solderability preservation only. The most widely used OSPs, benzimidazoles and phenylimidazoles, have evolved from earlier antitarnish coatings and can endure multiple soldering operations. OSP is the least expensive and simplest of all major surface finish options, so it enjoys wide use throughout the world. OSP use is limited, however, due to poor contact functionality for ICT and electrical test. Also, it suffers from degradation after multiple thermal operations, so solder wetting on Pb-free assemblies can pose problems.

Chemistry OSP is the simplest chemical process of the surface finishes, but the chemical itself is actually quite complicated. In brief, a large organic molecule (see Fig. 32.3) is dissolved into a solution of water and organic acid. The circuit board is exposed to the solution, and the OSP molecule attaches to the PCB s exposed copper surfaces. A chemical bond is formed between copper and a nitrogen group in the OSP. Copper is present in the chemical bath, so multiple layers of an OSP-copper complex can deposit on the surface, reaching a thickness of 0.10 to 0.60 mm.

Another generation of OSPs is designed to survive exposure to multiple high-temperature soldering operations. These chemicals are normally based on benzimidazole with attached functional groups to add molecular weight and thermal resistance. Substituted phenylimidazole and OSP systems with metal codeposits have been used as well. The intent of the new generation of OSP is to withstand Pb-free soldering temperatures. These high-temperature OSP coatings, made for use with Pb-free alloys and the associated fluxes, can be deposited at higher thicknesses and may be measured as high as 1.0 micron.

Fabrication Process Table 32.5 show the fabrication process for OSP, including chemicals and dwell times. Almost universally, OSP is applied in conveyorized equipment. The cleaner and microetch may use flood or spray application, but OSP is applied using flood. Because the OSP process is very mild to the PCB materials, rinsing is very important to ensure that contamination from all prior fabrication steps is removed. Often, OSP is applied when the PCB is in part form after the PCB has been electrical tested, routed, and depanelized. This is to preserve the

TABLE 32.5 Process Flow for Organic Solderability Preservative Process Cleaner Microetch Pre-Dip OSP Chemicals Aqueous solvents, detergents, and emulsifiers. Acid can help undercut residues and remove thick copper oxides. 1 2 m of Cu is oxidized to Cu++ and dissolved. Normally, the predip employs ingredients of the OSP bath without the OSP chemical itself. OSP, acetic or formic acid, source of copper or other metals. Time (min/) 1 4

Imagine that we are studying a region of spacetime where some distribution of matter and energy acts as a source of gravitational eld that we call the background eld. A test particle is one such that the gravitational eld it produces is negligible as compared to the background eld. In other words, the presence of the test particle will in no way change or alter the background eld.

0.5 0.5 1.0